Darmowy fragment publikacji:
Krzysztof T. Konecki – University of Łódź, Faculty of Economics and Sociology
Institute of Sociology, Department of Sociology of Organization Management
3/5 POW St., 90-255 Łódź
© Copyright by Krzysztof T. Konecki, Łódź 2018
© Copyright for this edition by University of Łódź, Łódź 2018
© Copyright for this edition by Jagiellonian University Press, Kraków 2018
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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Part One ‒ The Basics of Contemplative Research . . . . . . .
25
Chapter 1. Identity Processes and Dialogicality of Self ‒ the Problem of
Anamnesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. “I” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3. “Me” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4. Dialogue – ‘internal conversations’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5. Anamnesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6. Anamnesis Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7. Work on Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 2. Meditation for Social Scientists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Epistemology of the Middle Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Eightfold Path: Ethics and Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. Meditation Practice for Sociologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5. Deconstruction and Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6. Intuition for Sociologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 3. Contemplation for Economists. Towards a Social Economy
Based on Empathy and Compassion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. The Cult of Money according to David Loy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. The Buddhist Economy according to Frederic L. Pryor . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. Towards a Social Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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6 Contents
Chapter 4. The Problem of Ontological Insecurity. What Can We Learn
from Sociology Today? Some Zen Buddhist Inspirations . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. Zen Buddhist Inspirations for Sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. Sociological Inspirations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. What is Ontological Security? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5. Suffering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6. Greedy Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Part Two ‒ The applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
Chapter 5. Standing in Public Places: An Ethno-Zenic Experiment
Aimed at Developing Sociological Imagination, and More Besides… . .
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. The Analysis of Auto-Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1. Standing “Activity” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2. Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3. The Strength of the Mind and Thinking—The Battle of
Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.4. Mindfulness Appears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.5. The Reactions of ‘Normal Others’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.6. Reflections After the Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 6. Contemplating Technology in Qualitative Research . . . . . . .
6.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2. The Research and Disputes on CAQDAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3. Perspective of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4. Research, Methods, and Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5. Explicitation. The Central Themes of All the Auto-reports . . . . . . . .
6.5.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2. Technical Activities and Analytical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.3. Parallel Paths of Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.4. Auxiliary Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.5. Evaluative Thinking: Evaluating the Program and Computer
Functions and the Comfort and Efficiency of the Work . . . . .
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Contents 7
6.5.6. The Issue of Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.7. Auto-observation/ Auto-reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.8. The Perception of the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.9. Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6. Unique Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7. Physical Elements of the Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8.1. Methodological conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 7. Experiencing the University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2. Research, Methods, and Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3. Research Results: Experiencing the University Organizational
Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1. Experiencing Emotional States While Being at the University . .
7.3.2. Experiencing the University Infrastructure and Its Services . .
7.3.3. Organization Participants’ Routine Activities . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.4. Social Relations at the University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.5. Unique Themes of Meaning Not Related to the Foregoing
Ones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 8. Hatha-yoga in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2. Yoga in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3. Applications of Hatha-Yoga in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4. Yoga Practice at the Course of “Meditation for Managers” . . . . . . .
8.5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 9. Buddhism Zen and Qualitative Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Part three ‒ Technicalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
225
Chapter 10. Technical Aspects of Contemplative Research . . . . . . . . . .
10.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2. Meditation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3. Self-observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4. How to Write Auto-reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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8 Contents
10.5. Zenic Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6. Contemplation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.1. Empathetic Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Information about the author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Introduction
A mind is like a parachute. It doesn’t work if it is not open.
(Frank Zappa)
The spirit of contemplation was available in Western culture
since antiquity. We start our understanding of contemplation from the
description of the sculpture by Albert Toft, “The Spirit of contemplation”
(see Photo 1).1 When we look at the sculpture we see a person sitting
in a chair in a very relaxed position. She/he (we do not know exactly
the person’s gender) is naked, which means, that she/he is open, not
closed or limited by any clothes. This nudity refers to clearing the body
and mind; it is like looking for an epoché. However, we see the ancient
ornaments on the back of the chair railing, thus the person is situated
in an historical time. We also see a papyrus on the thighs of the person,
which can mean that contemplation is connected with reading and
writing. The hands rest on the chair rails, and the fingers are loose,
hence contemplation also means relaxation. However, the knees are
connected, which means that the mind is aware of the body, it is on
alert, consciously keeping the knees close to each other. The mind
controlling the knees indicates that it is here and now. The head is held
straight and the person looks in front of her/him, with concentration
visible on the face and in the eyes. The open eyes also mean that she/
he is here and now.
Therefore, we could infer from these artistic intuitions and art
work that contemplation is a concept referring to the mental activity
of deep concentration on something, on some issues, on God, or any
other object. It is connected also with reading and deep reflection.
The artistic vision is based on the knowledge and on the idea of
contemplation coming from the Western cultural tradition. This is
not a pretense – it is merely a statement of the fact. The connection
with reading and writing suggest that contemplation includes the act
of reflection. It is not only a passive acceptance of the events going
around the contemplating person. In reading a text, it is often an act of
contemplation of the phrases, metaphors, and comparisons expressed
in the language. It is an activity that helps to understand the Other,
the Self and the World. It could also be an analysis and critique of the
1 See George P. Landow picture of the sculpture by Albert Toft “The Spirit of Con-
templation”, http://www.victorianweb.org/sculpture/toft/28.html (accessed: 29.04.2017).
10 Introduction
concepts and planning of actions. However, all these acts should be
made in a solitude and in deep concentration, with insight into the
self and mind. This is the reality of contemplation. It is not meditation;
however, the meditation is the first step of a contemplative act.
Meditation has many meanings (see chapter 2 of this book). To
define it we can take inspirations from Christianity, Buddhism and
philosophy, as for example stoicism.
Meditation in Christianity is connected with contemplative praying.
While praying, our body should be relaxed and calm but “…inwardly
alert. The root of prayer is interior silence” (Keating 2002: 136).
Another meaning is connected with discursive meditation, when some
topics are reflected upon and some lessons are drawn from meditation
to put later into practice (ibid.: 22).
The teaching of Buddhism could inspire us to see meditation as rather
a concentration on some “points”, whether they will be mantras, some
important words, or breaths. The awareness of being here and now is
a state of mind that produces some spiritual consequences. Zen Buddhism
does not explain what should we think about or what are the consequences
of meditation – generally “sitting” (zazen) is without any goal, it is “just
sitting”. This is the act of meditation without an object. We experience
in practice the mind and body and nature as it is in the everyday “life-
world”, and what we get is experiential knowledge (Nagatomo 2017). The
practice is more important than theory. While sitting with a straight body
and observing our breath we are just aware of what is going on around
us; however, we do not conceptualize it and we do not compare what
we see with anything from the past. Our preassumptions, habits, and
stereotypes are not important. We observe the world as it is. Therefore,
we overcome our dualistic perception of the world and we suspend our
judgments (ibid.). The idea of oneness is underlined in many schools of Zen
Buddhism. Interconnectedness is a linguistic expression that gives hints
how dualistic thinking could be replaced (Nhat 1999, 1976). There is the
problem of individual self, which is fundamentally refused (by resignation
from the concept) in Zen practice. The “I” can be realized only when we
differentiate the “not I”, but I is not invoked by “not I”; if we refuse this
distinction there is still the “I” that has done so. Therefore, Buddhism
resigns from the concept of “I”, concentrating rather on real experiences
of the here and now, instead of invoking a concept that obscures living
experiences. Hence, Buddhist meditation clears the field of observation
based on ego-logical distortions.
Thus, meditation could be an introduction to contemplation. The
latter is also connected, in the Latin language, with the meaning of
a clear place for worship. So, we can follow this suggestion and indicate
Introduction 11
that contemplating means cleaning the mind. The cleaning of the mind
is needed for further reflection (it could be achieved by meditation,
as in Buddhism Zen), as it is needed to clear a place for worship. The
word is very often associated with praying or some religious activities,
as for example meditative reading of some sacred texts or prayers.
In Christianity, while pondering upon a sacred text the reader could
be moved affectionately and cognitively to the state of contemplation,
i.e. resting in the presence of God (Keating 2002: 20). It is a kind of
union with God, not reflective and passive. In Spiritual Exercises, Saint
Ignatius proposed some consecutive techniques to achieve the state of
contemplation, by:
1. Intellectual elaboration of the topics (discoursive meditations).
2. Gazing at the object of imagination and seeing the persons from
3. Application of the five senses in spirit to meditate and develop
the Gospels.
spiritual senses (ibid.: 22).
Photo 1. Picture of sculpture by Albert Toft “The Spirit of Contemplation”
(Victorian Web, http://www.victorianweb.org/sculpture/toft/28.html, accessed: 31.07.2017)
12 Introduction
When we start research, we usually prepare the conceptualization
of the research and we review the literature to create a basis for our
scientific endeavour and to refer to the existing knowledge. The review
of the existing knowledge has some features of contemplation; however,
it is not exactly contemplation. The conceptualization of future research
provides for the categorization of the approaches to the problem, and
categorization of the main definitions of the phenomena under study.
We usually look for errors and omissions in the previous research
and analysis. Usually our methodology is based on the assumption
that we should look for errors and our professional obligation is to
correct them and improve the procedures and concepts of the research
to approach and attain better conclusions. However, in this way we
follow the same assumptions, similar concepts, and methodological
procedures and we do not question the assumptions of the existing
knowledge. We do not sufficiently contemplate the state of the research
and of the researcher’s self in order to understand how we are shaped
by the past, by the situation, and by the internal conversation of the
self that is the product and the active component of the situation in
the World in which the person is thrown at some historical moment.
Deep contemplation of the situation could be the epistemological
choice for social scientists. It is a fundamentally different approach to
the research, where the investigator is researching the object but also
the situation of research and her-self/him-self. Contemplating is a dual
way of the approaching the truth. It does not mean that the researcher
is mentally divided; just the opposite, she wants to be complete and
achieve the unity of being as a researcher-human being and an element
of the situation (psycho-social and historical). The researcher who uses,
for example, participant observation for her research is observing the
activities and social situations of the participants. However, she is also
under the influence of the situations and activities of the observed
participants (Rowan 1981). Her ‘observation spectacles’ are created
by the historical moment and by the actual situation. Contemplating
enables researchers to see how the mind works and creates the images
and reports from the field – what is available for the mind and what is
silent or repressed because of the dominating rhetoric of description
and rhetoric of feeling? The dominant emotions are different in
different historical moments and situations (Elias 1994). Empathy and
sympathy usually follow the socially-accepted and available rhetoric.
Contemplation of these relations of the situation, rhetoric, mind
and self shows how the situation is co-produced by the researcher.
Contemplation is not only analysis, it is also an ethical choice of
stopping here and now to see the situation clearly and reporting it with
Introduction 13
the all reservations that could be the result of the mindfully-observed
interaction of mind, self, and situation at one historical moment.
The understanding of events and experiences from the past requires
historical empathy (Endacott and Brooks 2013; see also Woroniecka
1996, 1998/2003). The researcher should think about this empathy as
a historical concept; it was differently understood at the beginning of
20th Century and in mid-20th Century.2 Moreover, historical empathy
should take into consideration the following three aspects:
1. “– Historical Contextualization – a temporal sense of difference
that includes deep understanding of the social, political, and cultural
norms of the time period under investigation as well as knowledge
of the events leading up to the historical situation and other relevant
events that are happening concurrently.
2. – Perspective Taking – understanding of another’s prior lived
experience, principles, positions, attitudes, and beliefs in order to
understand how that person might have thought about the situation
in question.
3. – Affective Connection – consideration for how historical figures’
lived experiences, situations, or actions may have been influenced by
their affective response based on a connection made to one’s own
similar yet different life experiences” (Endacott and Brooks 2013: 43).
Understanding the historical context is very important to situate the
lived experience and actions of the individual plus feeling the affective
experiences referred to her own life experiences. However, we think
that that aspect should be considered more carefully. It should be done
through the contemplative autoanalysis of the researcher, to show if
her lived experiences have anything common with the experiences
of the analysed individuals. If we do not do this, it is difficult to be
empathetic historically. If we do so, we can develop some insights
into the personal experiences situated in the historical perspective.
Moreover, by contemplative autoanalysis we can see that the past
experiences of the Other and our attitudes to them could teach us
about today’s situation, which we experience in our own life.
Contemplation was a part of stoic philosophy. We could learn
a lot of lessons from this philosophy. Antique tradition is still alive
(Hadot 1987/1995, 1998), even if we do not agree with a particular
view. The stoic philosophy elaborated very well the ethical issues of
human life. To behave ethically we need to be masters of ourselves
and control our emotions and style of life. To do so, we should practice
2 See https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/10/a-short-history-of-empathy/
409912/ (accessed: 31.07.2017).
14 Introduction
prosoche (προσοχη) – which is a practice of constant attention to
our deeds and behaviours. We should maintain an attentiveness
to our desires, a permanent state of mindfulness. By being attentive,
we could behave morally and according to the laws of the nature
and attain happiness. “Attention (prosoche) is the fundamental Stoic
spiritual attitude” (Hadot 1995: 84). We can always appeal to reason
to avoid illusions and surrendering to emotions (Marcus Aurelius
2002, Book 2.8).
The following quote is concise summary of the concept of
attentiveness and its subject:
Discard your misperceptions. Stop being jerked as a puppet. Limit yourself to the
present. Understand what happens – to you, to others. Analyze what exists, break it
all down: material and cause. Anticipate your final hours. Other people’s mistakes?
Leave them to their makers (ibid.: 7.29).
In this quotation we see very important features of the stoic
philosophy: indicating our limitations and giving exhortations (the idea
of being the subject of illusions, dependence on the opinions of others,
the necessity to analyze the causes of things, the idea of getting used
to death and the idea of being non-judgmental).
Stoicism tells us to control lust and desires:
Upon every accident, remember to turn toward yourself and inquire what faculty
you have for its use. If you encounter a handsome person, you will find continence
the faculty needed; if pain, then fortitude; if reviling, then patience. And when thus
habituated, the phenomena of existence will not overwhelm you (Epictetus, The
Enchiridion, 10).
Controlling one’s emotions and desires is compatible with the
laws of nature. To control their emotions, the stoics developed some
contemplative techniques. Procheiron is a technique of memorizing
quotations and sayings to keep at hand prescriptions for solving some
issues. We should always have these rules at hand to apply them in the
everyday life. Thus, contemplative practices are tools that serve to keep
life going according to the harmonious principles of the world. The
philsosophical maxims that we remember and have at hand can be used
in moments of anger, sadness or fear. Hypomnemata is another technique
connected with writing the exhortations to ourselves to behave morally
and according to reason (Hadot 1998: 30–34). We should analyse what
depends on us in a concrete way and what does not, and abandon the
things and problems that do not depend on us. This is one of the basic
rules of stoicism. Things that do not depend on us belongs to the natural
Introduction 15
world (of causes and effects) and are not associated with our free will,
when we can choose between good and bad.
Also important is the evening contemplation what we have done
during a day:
The spirit ought to be brought up for examination daily. It was the custom of Sextius
when the day was over, and he had betaken himself to rest, to inquire of his spirit:
“What bad habit of yours have you cured today? What vice have you checked? In
what respect are you better?” Anger will cease, and become more gentle, if it knows
that every day it will have to appear before the judgment seat. What can be more
admirable than this fashion of discussing the whole of the day’s events? How sweet
is the sleep which follows this self-examination (Seneca 1928: 36).
Thus, in stoicism contemplation is directed on coping with life. First,
we should concentrate on ourselves and analyse our perceptions and
emotions with a rational mind; and later on others to our perceptions
and emotions in relation to the laws of nature. Being attentive to the
present is the secret of spiritual exercises. We can concentrate on
the micro things at the level of everyday life, which gives us a door
to the conversion to cosmic consciousness. Every moment is a part of
cosmic universal law (Hadot 1987/1995, 1998).
The contemplative practices that were developed in ancient
philosophy, mainly in stoicism and epicureanism, were continued and
developed in Christianity. Attention to oneself is a very important part of
the sermon of Basil of Cesarea. His idea of Prosoche is based on Platonic
and Stoic concepts. We should watch over our soul, see its beauty, and
avoid sins and correct our activities (Hadot 1995: 130–131). Saint Antony
practiced prosoche and he said to his disciples: “Live as though you
were dying every day… In the same vein, Marcus Aurelius wrote: ‘Let
your every deed and word and thought be those of one who might depart
from this life this very moment” (ibid.: 131). Saint Antony recommended
following contemplative practice: writing notes about the movements
of the soul. It had for him a therapeutic meaning: “Let’s each one of us
note and record our actions and the stirrings of our souls as though we
were going to give an account to each other” (quoted in Hadot 1995:
135). Writing is then a contemplative act and technique.
The incorporation of the ancient contemplative traditions can be
noticed in the writings of Saint Dorotheus of Gaza, which integrated
stoicism in the Neoplatonic perspective of the world. He described
spiritual perfection in stoic concepts. The apatheia concept is
especially meaningful here: “For Dorotheus of Gaza, apatheia is the
end result of the annihilation of one’s own will: ‘From this cutting off
of self-will a man procures for himself detachment [aprospatheta], and
16 Introduction
from detachment he comes, with the help of God, to perfect apatheia’”
(ibid.: 136). This cutting off of one’s own will is connected with not
watching what we want to watch, not joining the conversation that is
underway, not asking the cook what he is preparing for dinner (ibid.).
However, contemplation is not associated with withdrawing from
the world. It is not connected with quietism or passivity in the lifeworld.
It is rather connected with the creation of a new perspective and new
way of acting. Contemplation could be connected with engagement
in worldly affairs (Walsh 2016: 31–32). Generally, contemplation is
associated with the psychological work of the mind. The mindfulness
movement also underlines this kind of understanding (Kabat-Zin 1994,
2005). However, contemplation could be a real transformation of the
subject by releasing the cultural filters of perception and the opening
up of our perspective to the Other and to the Self, Society and the
Nature. This helps to see the social world more holistically.
***
Contemplation could also be seen as a model for community
development. Mindfulness based intervention (MBI) is such a method.
During the meditation practice in MBI, relations are co-created. There
is an ethical component of being together, which also has a sublime and
aesthetic component. The body that is in the present and becomes open
to observe, together with the mind work, show that non-doing is a kind
of model whereby a lack of hierarchy and non-pathologizing approach
can be practised and has the effects on the individuals (McCown 2016).
A community can arise, with friendship as the basis for the social
relations, from the individual and singular efforts of contemplation.
We can lose self-boundaries and enter of the state of belonging to one
another (ibid.: 122–124).
At the same time however, we should bear in mind that the concept
of community should be carefully and rationally contemplated. Being
together, mutual influencing each other, co-creation, belonging to
others, and being one could have under, some conditions and in some
historical moments, fateful effect for individual freedom. We could lose
the sense of individuality and the ethical responsibility of an individual,
singular person. When the community does not respect the ethical
freedom of individuals, but only the communal one, this can lead to
internalizing an authoritarian attitude instead of a community one
based on friendship. When the individual “I” is subordinated to the
general “Me” there can be no rationally and ethically-based decisions
Introduction 17
by individuals, and the community is corrupted by the one sidedness, i.e.
the lack of the desirable balance between individuality and community
(Koestler 2006). Contemplation could be a non-revolutionary way of
protecting the democratic mentality and freedom of individuals. The
collective, nation, or state should be contemplated to see and feel
the amount of freedom it gives to us. However, we should also remember
that some kind of contemplation as a mindfulness practice originating
from Zen Buddhism could be used as a way to increase efficiency and
profit in business companies (Saari and Harni 2016).3 Therefore, we
should also look into this kind of contemplation to examine the roots
and context of its use.
Contemplation of an ideology that uses the concept of historical
necessity as an excuse for terror could protect us against ‘easy
theorizing’. However, contemplation could lead us in the wrong direction
if it is based on an ideology and we are not able to suspend our basic
assumptions for our activities. If some activities create suffering under
the one ideology that we belive in, we are more prone to justify the
assumptions and sufferings. The motives of the individual become not
important. The direction of the movement, party, and history becomes
logical and justifiable. Rubashow, the hero of the book by Arthur
Koestler, did not questioned his basic assumptions (ibid.: 76). Rubashow
fear of meeting with the history machine was tremendous, but in reality,
it was a fear of meeting with the self and accepting responsibility for
past choices and deeds done under influence of the communist ideology.
Contemplative practices can also be used pragmatically to solve
social problems. It is used for therapy and/or the resocialization of
persons unadjusted to society. There is the Morita Therapy that uses Zen
Buddhism inspiration. This therapy is not directed toward intellectually
solving the psycho-social problems, but to experiencing the reality as
it is. The psychological reality should be accepted. The modification is
not connected with repairment of the psyche by cognitive processes.
It is rather by connecting the already-accepted wishes and drives of
the person with his responsibility for life activities. It stresses the
importance of awareness of being, acting and accepting the natural
course of life.
3 “…the way Zen spirituality is used in entrepreneurship education shows the
inventive sweeping logic of capitalism: it broadens its own boundaries by assimilating
criticism that seems to come from outside it. In this case, the countercultural and at
times decidedly anti-capitalist ethos of Zen Buddhism was deterritorialized and annexed
to the very conditions of productive work in the general economy. This also highlights
the way capitalism not only ‘represses’ in the sense of suffocating human life, but creates
human reality and cultivates its productive forces” (Saari, Harni 2016: 114).
18 Introduction
Morita proposes four phases of the therapy:
1. Isolation-rest/absolute bed rest (often one week resting, when
the patients relieve themselves of the stress and daily tiredness and
finally experience inner conflicts, boredom, and idleness);
2. Light occupational therapy (patients perform simple tasks such
as walking, touching the soil, observing the garden);
3. Heavy occupational therapy (patients perform more complicated
tasks e.g. cleaning, fixing the furniture, cooking etc.);
4. Complicated activity therapy in preparation for actual life/
social reintegration (some of these activities are done outside of the
residential therapy buildings) (Morita 1928/1998: 35; Ishiyama 2003).
The goal of the therapy is concentration on the activity, regardless
of the symptoms and fears that the person experiences. The focus of
perception changes from the self to the activity.
Another very important kind of contemplative practices are
used in the Naikan Therapy. Naikan means “looking inside”. It is
connected with the observation of self and experiencing feelings.
The observation is done from the perspective of another person, in
the Japanese context it is usually a mother (Ozawa-de Silva 2006,
2015). The Naikan therapy is a contemplative activity based on the
Shin Buddhist practice mishirabe, which was adapted by Yoshimoto
Ishin so as to use this technique at prisons to reconvert criminals to
the society. The technique was also used effectively in therapy for
alcoholism, pachinko addiction, and drug addiction (Ozawa-de Silva
2007: 413). The therapy is based on the one-week long staying in
seclusion to concentrate on the past deeds and to undertake some
reflections of them. The practice consists of following steps: “(1) what
the client received from that person, (2) what he or she gave back
to that person, and (3) what trouble he or she caused that person”
(ibid.: 214). The mind is usually preoccupied with the ego, so looking
at the self from the perspective of a significant other (a mother) could
change the way of thinking and feeling.
The research shows that people after the therapy: “(1) change
their perception of others; (2) change their perception of themselves;
(3) feel a strong sense to be more helpful to others; and (4) realize that
one’s problems are not objective, they are not external problems but,
rather, problems of one’s own perception” (ibid.: 418). We can see that
adaptation of the spiritual tradition of contemplation could have, both
individually and socially, healing effects. The concentration on love of
other people and compassion, which are features of Buddhism, can be
transferred to everyday life by therapeutic practice, and thus change
the lives of treated patients. The contemplative therapy shows that
Introduction 19
we are dependent on others and that the root of the suffering is not in
the external conditions but in the perceptions and attachments of the
individual. This far-reaching insight can touch the deep self (Scheff
2014) and can be liberating and healing.
Contemplative research could be associated with phenomenology
(Bentz 2016: 50–51). If we look at some phenomenological procedures
they could remind us of contemplative study. Epoche, which is used
to expel our filters of the world’s perception, is similar to meditative
and contemplative practices. When we apply epoche we “bracket”
the assumptions that come from science and our methodological
assumptions and previous research, then we “bracket” the assumptions
from our culture and everyday life. Later, while doing research we can
reconstruct the universal structure of the phenomenon as it appears
in our perception in different situations, without basing them on the
previous knowledge. Other procedures include imaginative variations,
horizontalizations, and horizonalization (ibid.: 53). Imaginative
variations refer to the possibilities of situations, conditions in which
the phenomenon could appear and exist. We, as researchers, try to
reconstruct these possibilities in our mind. Horizontalization refers
to seeing the phenomena in the situation from different observation
points, to see what the phenomenon could mean from many perspectives
of experiencing it. Horizonalization (without a ‘t’) is a technique that
allows to put at the centre of observation the aspect of the experience
that seems to be important for the phenomenon, but is not initially
within the horizon of experience (ibid.: Rehorick and Bentz 2008: 16;
see also Bentz and Shapiro 1998: 99).
For Valery Bentz, phenomenology could be somatic. This means
that we can observe our body from inside and describe both our
tensions and our releases of tensions that could be meaningful and
transforming. A person could thus transform her life and perspective
of seeing the world (Bentz 2016: 53; Rehorick and Bentz 2008). Some
somatic experiences could be associated with trauma or unfavourable
family conditions, and they need corrections through special physical
training or the work on the body. According to Valery Bentz “Through
somatic phenomenological inquiry, we are able to release the personal
accumulations of power distortions such as trauma, ego, money,
and sensual decadence, thereby opening the space to plug in to the
transcendant. As it happens in the phenomenological epoche, we can
make space for our deeper beings to emerge” (Bentz 2016: 60–61).
This transformation of perspectives and self could be achieved also
by practicing hatha-yoga, which helps to see the emotions and attitudes
from embodied perspectives. The deep bodily experience and awareness
20 Introduction
of it could help in dealing with emotions, removing the emotional and
bodily blockages. Sometimes, it can lead to personal development and,
under some conditions, even spiritual accomplishment (Konecki 2016).
We can assume that contemplative study is the empirical orientation in
humanistic and social science. If so, we can reconstruct the epistemology
and methodology of this kind of research. Epistemology is connected with
the question how to research the world that we encounter? However,
what is ‘this world’? We always face the ontological issue, even if we
want to avoid it or dismiss its significance. Reducing the question of
ontology to epistemology could be called the ‘epistemic fallacy’ (Porpora
2016: 80–81). However, in selecting an object of study we should know
how it is situated in reality, and ask ourselves how we understand the
reality and how we define it? If we study how the mind works and
elaborates the subjective self and looking-glass self of the individual
(Cooley 1922), we assume that mind exists and that the self exists, and
that the self is more related to the perceptions of others. Therefore,
assumptions about the others and their relations always exist, so some
kind of sociality also exists. If we can learn something only about the
selves and minds, we can then assume what this sociality is. The relations
with the selves and mind define the situations and identities. Therefore,
the sociality includes the situations and selves, and the individuals that
define the relations and their meanings (Blumer 1969). The social world
is created by definitions of situations, and its change is possible only
by being conscious of what is going to be changed. The causes for the
appearance of the selves are social in nature, and the shape of the selves
are finally elaborated and maintained by the mind. The person that is
aware of these relationships is conscious of it. So, consciousness is also
assumed, but the consciousness could have many other objects to be
conscious of. The objects are real, at least in the consciousness of the
person. The sociality could be such an object.
Awareness of the existence and creation of something also assumes
its changeability, so changing refers to impermanence. These briefly
expressed arguments show that ontology is always present in our
scientific endeavours. Even if we do not express it openly, as happens
in positivistic and neo-positivistic social sciences, we always assume, in
the background, what the reality is and also its structure.
So what then is contemplative ontology? According to Renteria-
Uriarte, contemplative ontology “…posits that the assumed outer
world, perceived by the researcher, and the ordinary mind, from which
it is observed, are nothing but two distinct manifestations of the same
inner and deep consciousness that can be realized by meditation or
contemplating techniques” (2016: 142). Mentality is included in the
Introduction 21
all reality that we study, and if we are going to understand the other
person from her perspective and the interconnectedness, it becomes
an essential (assumed) feature of reality.
So, for the analyses that are made in the book, we could define
contemplation at this moment as follows:
Contemplation is a kind of activity that leads to a certain state of
mind, and at the same time, it is a method of obtaining knowledge about
some objects at the present time, and also about getting knowledge
itself, here and now, by mindful insight into the perceived (and also
imagined) phenomena or objects, and also into the self.
***
This book consists of 10 chapters. In chapter one the book begins
with considerations concerning identity processes. These are processes
through which we become social beings and take on specific social
roles and realize specific moral careers. We experience the social order
normally, coveting it in our process of knowing, and we achieve this
by following its rules and norms. This is established through identity
processes, which construct the images of an individual in an active way.
There is also analysis of the anamnesis process, i.e. recalling the obvious
but unnoticed phenomena; this involves the awareness of the dialogue
of the self (inner conversation), which has been historically excluded
from the colloquial consciousness in favour of hierarchical and collective
thinking, and in our particular Western civilization by the conviction of
a necessary “distinctness” and uniqueness of the self in the world, where
paradoxically we experience an ever-progressing uniformity.
The second chapter describes how the practice of meditation
can explain a lot about society. Although we seem to be alone while
meditating, concentrating on something or nothing, we understand
society based on the experiences and diverse interpretations of
meditation. In this chapter we consider what we, as social scientists
(especially psychologists, social psychologists and sociologists) but also
philosophers, can get from the practice of meditation and philosophies
of meditation. We explore the main advantages of meditation as an
epistemological practice, especially those coming from Buddhism. The
main aim is to gain insight that helps us see the changing nature of the
mind and its creative nature, which is without essence. Observing how
the mind work yields many inspirations for analysis of the connections
between the mind, self, and society, and its “empty nature” (no-mind,
no-self, no-society).
22 Introduction
The third chapter is a presentation of the Buddhist approach to
the economy and what we can learn from it. It demonstrates David
Loy’s analysis of the meaning of money from the Buddhist perspective.
Money becomes a reality symbol and an ego symbol. The chapter also
presents some conclusions from Frederic Pryor’s analysis of Buddhist
prescriptions to the economic system. Stress is put on compassion and
ethics, which show the ubiquitous interconnectedness that works for
the well-being of the whole society/societies. The Buddhist approach
to the economy is connected with pro-social values, compassion and
concept of happiness.
The fourth chapter examines the topic: Can we learn about the art
of living from sociology? Sociology teaches us that we are the part of
a broader group called society. We are taught that that society should
be first described in order to be understood and/or explained, and that
the cognitive function is the most important part in understanding the
role sociology should play in a democratic and modern society. Is this
understanding (cognition) enough? How can we get more to better our
quality of life and live a wholesome life from studying sociology or society
using a sociological perspective? Is sociology a tool for the art of living
or it is just the play of “sophisticated” intellectuals? In this chapter
we analyse the approaches of Robert Merton, George H. Mead, and
Anthony Giddens. We also reconstruct the structural conditions of the
art of living and happiness, analysing the concept of greedy institutions
by Lewis Coser. We analytically connect the structural conditions of
work in contemporary greedy institutions (working on projects) with
the loss of ontological security. We analyse the displacement of the
meaning of work, career, autonomy, time structure, identity, privacy
and happiness. We try to use a Buddhist inspiration to analyze issues of
suffering and, associated with it, so called ‘ontological insecurity’ and
the welfare of the individual and/or society.
fifth chapter describes and analyses an ethno-Zenic
experiment consisting of standing motionless in public places (for
example, at the entrance to a shopping mall, in front of a petrol station,
a bank, a shop, or on a street corner). The research was inspired by
an ethnomethodological approach to lived order and psychological
knowledge – derived from Buddhism – on how the mind works. Some
inspirations from symbolic interactionism were also adopted. The
experiment was aimed in the first instance at discovering the basic
assumptions underlying our everyday activities. A second and more
important goal was to deconstruct the work of the mind, especially
with regard to the process of the looking-glass self and of ‘producing’
emotions. The chapter also discusses the self-study method (ethno-
The
Introduction 23
Zenic experiments) applied to deconstruct the mind as part of a lived
order in a certain location and – in the wake of that – mindfulness.
The sixth chapter deals with the problem of the relationship between
the contemporary usage of technology in qualitative research and
analysis of data in sociology (using technical devices such as computers
and software) and the sociological mind. The research and analysis of
social relations and social worlds are very often conducted using the
technology that we define here, in a very broad sense, as methodical
and technical procedures, software, calculating devices and technical
devices for the observation of the World and recording data, and devices
for the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data. Technology could
be used as instrument for analysing the “external world” (through
an instrumental use of technology) by the “independent” sociological
mind. This is an attitude that is a part of the modernistic approach to
“society”.
Here we also analyse the role of technology in producing sociological
knowledge, while taking into consideration the historical, political, and
ideological dimensions of the phenomenon. The production of knowledge
is done by individual sociologists, who are immersed in the social world
of sociology, and the process is performed in the here and now by
particular sociologists using the technology of procedures and material
devices. We also analyse the technology in use and the experiences of
technology that produce the knowledge.
The questions addressed in this chapter are as follows:
1. Do sociologists, in their thinking, depend on the technology they
use in researching society, or is the technology only instrumental to
their “independent sociological mind”?
2. Is observing/being aware of the use of technology in every
moment a liberating strategy for a sociologist?
These problems are analysed via the phenomenological explication
of experiences of using the CAQDAS technology (Computer Assisted
Qualitative Data Analysis). It was used the concept of Richard Hycner
for our analysis of qualitative data, in our case the auto-reports from
the sessions of use of technology to analyse qualitative data. The auto-
reports idea comes from the inspiration of the contemplative inquiry
model of social science.
The seventh chapter examines the issue of how the organizational
culture of a certain institution is being experienced, by reconstructing
the leading themes coming from auto-observation and descriptions of
it. Instead of investigating how it is perceived or how its values are
verbalized, the study undertakes to analyse the actual experiencing
of certain spaces and social relations, as well as how these are
24 Introduction
being conceptually embraced therein. To do so, phenomenological
methodology and the analysis of qualitative data–adjusted to the
research framework at hand–have been employed. Throughout
the observation of bodily and mind responses, the lived experience
under scrutiny has been given a leading role in determining whether
and how research preconceptualizations should be superseded by
the perceptions of the organizational reality under study, as seen and
experienced by those who actively partake in the institution at hand.
Chapter eight deals with the problem of adaptation of hatha-yoga
contemplation practice into the system of higher education. There
are some problems with including yoga into the curricula of higher
education institutions, and these are described mainly in the USA and
Polish contexts. The body has been almost excluded from programs
of teaching. There is a large gap between the theory and practice.
However, the body could be an active subject (actant) in learning
and perceiving the reality. It could be used to teach philosophy,
psychology, sociology, management, and other courses. Students could
achieve embodied knowledge, and not just the opportunity of gaining
an intellectual knowledge coming from and through the mind. I am
a sociologist and I describe my experiences with including yoga in
teaching sociological and psychological subjects in a Polish University.
The results from auto-reports of students show that by hatha-yoga
practice students could see the connection between the body and mind
concerning the production of emotions, which could be important
in teaching techniques of stress reduction, sociology of emotions,
psychology of emotions, philosophy of body, management, coaching or
other subjects where emotions and the body are important factors in
an activity.
In chapter nine I show how, based on the concept of Valerie Janesick,
contemplative inquiry connects with the Zen Buddhism. I describe how
her book (2015) and her concepts support the ideas expressed in our
book.
In chapter ten I describe some technical aspects of contemplative
inquiry. It is important to know not only the basic assumptions of such
research and to have theoretical preparations, but also to know how
to do self-observation and self-reports. This chapter describes to some
extent the procedure of Zen experiments. All these techniques lead
finally to contemplative cognition, whereby we can reconstruct our
participation in constructing the phenomena that we are experiencing
and researching.
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